On the earthquake that struck Syria on the idesof Sha'bān 744/January 2, 1344

In God we seek refuge from the harm of what runs deep inside the earth and what comes out from it, and we beg Him for success in describing it and escaping from it. We beg for God's help and seek His protection from what has poisoned the current year, it being the 44th [of the eighth century of Islam], in which an earthquake struck Syria, turning its men, horses, and all who drag a tail into direct objects of the earth's transitive action. May there be no return of earthquakes! They hamper the intellect and halt it, and drive people out to the deserts and the wastes, where they exhaust themselves with constant prayer.

          Time is a deceiver of man.
              It enfeebles and abases him and does him harm.
          When the Earthquake strikes, how much is left
              of Ornament that captivated formerly?

Sixty days have passed, and one family is warned by another's example. When I was asked how the wall [of a certain house] could remain standing for two consecutive months, I said: "It is seeking atonement." For on a day of Ramadan it collapsed onto its people.

          In the Merciful we seek refuge from the like
              of earthquakes which rout all hope of sleep.
          It sprang violently upon the unresistant
              and condemned the chaste to death by stoning.
          It was the sentence of the Almighty, Powerful and Triumphant,
              Whose kindliness is unconditional and eternal.

In fear we eyed the shaking stones as they separated from each other. "Some there are that split apart... and some fall down in fear of God" and fly to pieces. How many houses did workers and technicians enter whose hard stones were freshly spattered, "wherein they found a wall about to collapse"! How many high places brought low, never to be raised! and how many buildings reduced in height, to await the Day of Judgment! How many nights we stayed awake - as on nights of travel - and called on God, praised be He, that there be "peace, until the rising of the dawn"! We ask God for recompense without affliction, and we seek refuge in God from affliction without recompense.
     The refugees avoid the valleys and remain out of doors in January, hobbled by the cold:

          Fear of the heaving earthquake
              hurled us "onto the open shore"
          of the empty desert, where nothing can land on us
             but rain from the sky.

The natural philosopher said: "This was caused by vapors of the pent-up wind." The astrologer said: "It was provoked by the movement of a star." Whereupon the legal scholar declaimed:

         In the agency of God I am the first believer,
             and the first to disbelieve that this was star-ordained.
         The philosopher is without grace or warrant,
             and the star-struck have nothing to back them up.

The scholars have a clearer perspective, for God's law is more on point.
     Aleppo prevailed over the disaster. Cracks appeared in its mosque, and its minaret waved and fell to leaning. and had the call been stronger it would have been apocopated. Thanks to God, however, the mosque remained intact and its minaret was spared emasculation, in order that God's word might still resound. But tears for [the neighborhood of] al-'Aqaba flow like water from the sky. "What will make you know what is al-'Aqaba?" Men's and women's quarters were thrown together inside the moving buildings, whose walls came together in a farewell embrace, and many necks were broken and rib cages intermixed, inspiring this rajaz couplet:

         The earthquake took a special delight
         in the flesh of the neckbone of the 'Aqabite.

Downcast by the whole catastrophe, Aleppo's provincial deputy left the city. His grief and remorse were evident, as he walked with a copy of the Qur'ān shielding his head.

         I guarantee that if you saw him
             promenading beneath that Qur'ān
         you would have thought him the very picture of Joseph
             with a copy of Sūrat Yūsuf on his head.

And if you had seen the citadels and fortresses, when all their guardhouses were brought down:

         The earthquake flew at the Citadel of citadels
             without fear of archers or traps.
         When the fortress learned who was the Aimer of the blow
             it left its foundation and went to its knees before Him.
         Those who escaped the ruin to live on in dread
             of the joint extinction of novelty and antiquity know that
         the matter belongs to God. And many a speculator
             does not err until he acts.

The people were reduced to camping next to the sites vacated by their houses when the earthen tide swept them away.
     But if you had seen Manbij, birthplace of streams and source of the early morning's blowing breeze—Manbij, in the grip of obliterating force—"as if it had not flourished yesterday," and the gloom of the sun and full moon on its rubble!

         Their deaths in the rubble did not fall short
             of His decree, and they entered the company of martyrs.
         The Creator's might is blameless
             and there is no disgrace in His creation brought low.

Alas for Manbij, the splendid city! It became a ruin whose description wearies the tongue, enveloped in dust and shadow and ridden by a dark black wind.

         They and their houses perished in an instant
             as if on schedule.
         May there be a disinterment of their bright faces
             like swords taken out from sheaths.

I am told that the stones of its minaret flew across the sky like missiles:

         Drunk on the earthquake's wine, it danced
             like a sportive camel under a hasty rider.
         Its libation set my tears to pouring out
             for what befell its house and the people in it.

When they heard the horrible sound, "they left their homes by the thousands, fearing death." But their fear was no protection, nor were the tears they shed, nor the porticoes of their kings when their kings lay dead.

         With the walls around our young maids fallen,
             what can I say to Him? "Be Thou our wall"?

The feebleness of my descriptive powers is too great, and my own greatness is too feeble, and with these verses I conclude:

         The people of Manbij were like silkworms,
             whose homes turn into graves.
         Blessed were they, whose mulberry tree
             was a garden paved with silk.

The Epistle of the Earthquake by Zayn al-Din ibn al-Muzaffar ibn al-Wardi

Allegory of the Violet

Heaving a deep, dejected sigh, the violet said: "For those who round out a blessed life with a martyr's death, I pour out my fragrance until I am reduced to ash by cruel fortune. Clad in the garment of emaciation, I am wasted away by the passing days, which admit no stay and dictate my corruption, leaving me no protective wrapper nor withstanding power. How brief a floruit was appointed me! And how long must I go on cut and dried! All the days of my existence I am battered up and down, cut from my roots and prevented from fruiting. The strong take advantage of my weakness, and my delicacy, grace and elegance are no protection against ill use. To enter my presence is to be blessed! and to see me is to marvel at me. But no more than a day or part of a day goes by until I am sold for a pittance, and a minute later I am found blameworthy. By nightfall you see me torn and tousled by the hands of happenstance, a husk hopeless of recovering its bloom.

"I am prized by pharmacists and those who attend to hidden wisdom, for by me are swelling cysts reduced, and violent pains made easier to bear, and recalcitrant bowels made pliant, and pernicious illnesses repulsed. Dried or fresh, I am a source of blessings to the people, who are ignorant of the magnitude of my oration, and the wisdom deposited in me by my Lord. To those who contemplate me attentively I am an exhortation, and an admonition to the mindful. Within me is an oracular indication for those who are attuned, and 'consummate wisdom, though warnings avail not.'"

And I exclaimed (meter: kāmil):

          I marvel at the violets when they burst into speech,
              through petals borne aloft on branching stems,
          an army of them hoisting emerald spears
              tipped with hyacinthine gems raised high,
          as if confronting an enemy host
              tall as the tops of high palms.

From Revelation of the Secret Wisdom of the Birds and Flowers
by 'Izz al-Din ibn Ghanim al-Maqdisi

At ‘Ayn Wabār

Abū Ḥātim said: One of our most dependable elders told of a man of Yemen who saw a camel like a beautiful white star, frisking amid his she-camels until all were mounted. When they had conceived, the he-camel went away and stayed away for one year's time. It was after the man had delivered his camels of their offspring live and kicking that again he saw the he-camel, which stayed among the she-camels until they were fecundated anew. When the camel went away again, its offspring followed it, the man following them whither he knew not until he came to ‘Ayn Wabār. (This is a spring of water belonging to the jinn, and its location is no longer known.) Among the wild camels, asses, gazelles and wild cows he found his flock under palms whose dates reached to their shoulders, such as no man had ever cultivated nor had any knowledge of.

He said: One of the jinn came up to the man and said: "What caused you to alight here?" "I followed these, my camels," the man said. The jinn said: "Finding you here on any day before today, I would have killed you. But go [with your life] and do not return. This he-camel is one of our herd." The jinn rounded up the camel's offspring and drove them out along with the man. From this stock it is claimed that the noble Mahrī camels are descended.

On his return, the man told one of the kings of Kinda about ‘Ayn Wabār. The king wore himself out with long seeking but was never able to find it, and from that time up til now its location has remained unknown. And that is ‘Ayn Wabār.

Similar expressions are mentioned by Abū Zayd and others: "I left him in a country that was tongue-tied," "I left him at the wild cow-licks," "I left him by the fox-ford," "I left him at the pond of last resort," and "I left him in a wasteland that was tongue-tied" are all said as one says "I left him at ‘Ayn Wabār." All are places of which no one has any experience or knowledge.

From The Book of the Palm by Abū Ḥātim al-Sijistānī (d. 869/255)

The Rooster and the Crow

Abu Rawq al-Hazzani informed us that [Muhammad ibn Bashir] al-Riyashi said: "We were with al-Asma'i when a Bedouin came up to him and asked: 'You are al-Asma'i?' 'Yes,' he said. 'You are the man of the settled folk who is wise to the speech of the desert Arabs?' 'So they claim,' said al-Asma'i. 'What is the meaning,' asked the Bedouin, 'of the early poem:

        "What's he but the wine-drinking, tavern-loving rooster,
             the one who was companion of the crow?
         When the dawn begins to break, his voice unleashes:
            'Why, O crow, have you not returned my clothes?' " '

"Al-Asma'i said: 'The Arabs used to say that in times past the rooster was possessed of a wing with which it could fly through the air, and the crow had a wing like the wing of a rooster, useless for flying. One night, the two of them were drinking together in a tavern, and when their drink ran out, the crow said to the rooster: 'For the loan of your wing, I will bring you more drink.' So the rooster loaned it to him, and the crow flew away and never came back. They say that when the rooster calls out at daybreak, he is begging the crow for his wing." The Bedouin laughed, and said: 'You are one of the very muses [mā anta illā shaytān].' " The poem is by Umayya ibn Abi 'l-Salt.

From Echelons of the Grammarians by Abu 'l-Tayyib al-Lughawi

Yay

6 October Bridge, 29 Jan. 2011. Photo by Cameron Hu

Ow

July 26 Bridge, looking east from Zamalek (Cairo), on Jan. 28, 2011.
Rubber pellets, didn't leave a lasting mark. Still nobody tell my mom :)

I am in Dubai

The source of the verse quoted lately

Abu 'l-Aswad al-Du’ali sent a messenger to al-Husayn ibn Abi 'l-Hurr al-‘Anbari (grandfather of the judge 'Ubayd Allah ibn al-Hasan) and Nu‘aym ibn Mas‘ud al-Nahshali, who were revenue officers under Ziyad. His hopes for the courtesy of an answer were gratified by Nu‘aym, but al-Husayn tossed Abu 'l-Aswad's letter over his shoulder. On his return, the messenger informed Abu 'l-Aswad, who said (meter: ṭawīl):

         When my letter came, you thought it was asking
             for charity, but my hopes lay in a different direction.
         My messenger informs me that
             your left hand took the letter,
         and with one look at the address you cast it aside
             like the cast-off, worn-out sole of your shoe.
         Nu‘aym ibn Mas‘ud is worthy of what came to him
             and you are worthy of what's already yours.
         It attacks and advances without awareness or knowledge:
             what else is stupidity, if not that?"

Muhammad ibn Sallam [al-Jumahi] said: "When a litigant got confused in his speech before [the above mentioned grandson,] 'Ubayd Allah ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Husayn ibn Abi 'l-Hurr the judge of Basra, 'Ubayd Allah quoted to him the verse:

        'He attacks and advances without awareness or knowledge.
             What else is stupidity, if not that?'

The man said: 'If Your Honor will allow me to approach, I have something to say.' 'You may approach,' said 'Ubayd Allah.
         "The man said: 'Of all people, it is you who have the most reason to keep quiet about that poem, for you know about whom it was spoken.' 'Ubayd Allah smiled, and said: 'It is evident to me that you are the wronged party in this case. Return to your home.' He then ordered the man's adversary to approach, and said: 'You are to pay him the full amount demanded.' "

From the Book of Songs of Abu 'l-Faraj al-Isbahani (Cf.)

On the ignorance of our preceptors

You (may you learn what's best, from the best!) should know what a grave hazard that ignorant authorities and misleading sources pose to humankind. This has been humankind's affliction from the earliest and most bygone eras and days, and is only worse in our own time, in which we have wound up at the pinnacle of confusion and the murkiest extreme of turbidity.

Our education comes from those without education, nor judgment, sense, or comprehension. Devoid of understanding, they give explanations, and without learning of their own they give instructions. All their learning is forged and feigned, and there is no slander they won't drum up and pass on. Being ignorant, they think themselves learned, and find fault with those whose learning is sound (meter: majzū’ al-ramal):

        Busy in all things,
            he masters none of them.
        His guidance gives increase
            in nothing but misdirection.

Furthermore, his pretensions to being the wisest of men are his only joy in life. In reality, he is a blight on his students, and to those seeking an education he is poison. In his mind, however, even an assembly of his own teachers would be in need of his instruction. When he narrates, he prevaricates, and when questioned he vacillates. When disputed he yells, when contradicted he brawls, and when the proof against him is decisive he answers with foul language (meter: ṭawīl):

       "He attacks and advances without awareness or knowledge.
            What else is stupidity, if not that?"

The ignorance of such preceptors is off the scale established by al-Khalil when he declared the rankings of men, as related by Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-‘Abbas [al-Suli] on the authority of Abu Ahmad Muhammad ibn Musa al-Barbari, on the authority of al-Zubayr ibn Bakkar [ibn al-‘Awwam] who was told by al-Nadr ibn Shumayl:

"I heard al-Khalil say: 'Some people have knowledge, and know that they have knowledge. These are the learned, who should be followed. Some have knowledge without knowing that they have it; such people go astray, and should be led aright. Some do not have knowledge, and know that they lack it. These are the students, who should be taught. And some have no knowledge, and do not know that they lack it. These are the ignorant, and they should be avoided.' "

From Echelons of the Grammarians by Abu 'l-Tayyib al-Lughawi

Princeton MS Garrett 1156H, fol. 20r

       

[Siraj al-Din al-Warraq wrote in answer to a poem by Nasir al-Din al-Hammami:]

    He summons the village to prayer, and the party
        whose worship is mischief and liquor and cups.
    His magnanimous nature alternates with his jealousy
        and his rival is never allowed to forget it.
    The pleasure he takes in his wives is apparent,
        as are his bright crown and his striped, fringed vestment.
    A heart full of fire in a breast that is slender:
        no better way to describe him than this."

And God, be He praised and exalted, knows best.

Chapter 4: Reports describing the Rooster of the Throne, peace be upon him, with scrupulous attention to the rare words they contain.

The Rooster of the Throne is an angel of great size in the form of a rooster. Abu 'l-Shaykh quotes Abu Bakr ibn [Abi] Maryam on the authority of [Abu] Mughira [that Abu Sufyan said:] "God has an angel in heaven called the Rooster, and when he praises God in heaven the roosters on earth praise Him also. He says: 'Praise be to the Most Holy, the Merciful, Compassionate and Divine King! There is no God but He.' And God will relieve the distress of any sick or troubled person who says the same."

Abu 'l-Shaykh also quotes Yusuf ibn Mahran on the authority of 'Abd al-Rahman that a man of Kufa said: "It was told to me that beneath the Throne is an angel in the form of a rooster, with talons of pearl and a breast of green chrysolite. When the first third of the night has passed, it beats its wings and calls aloud, saying: 'Arise, ye wakers!' When half the night has passed, it beats its wings and calls aloud, saying 'Arise, ye watchers!' When the final third of the night has passed, it beats its wings and calls aloud, saying: 'Arise, ye worshipers!' And at the breaking of dawn it beats its wings and calls aloud, saying: 'Arise, ye sleepers,' and they resume their burdens."
    This hadith is also related with the word ghāfilūn "heedless ones" in place of nā’imūn "sleepers." Alternate wordings are heard for the rooster's speech: "Praise be to the Noble and Uncreated!" after the first third of the night, "Praise be to the Generous unto those who disobey Him!" after the second third, and "Awake, ye heedless ones, for the hour before dawn belongs to God!" after the third. Burāthin ("talons") is pronounced with ḍamma after the initial bā', followed by the letters rā', thā' and nūn…

A page from The Book of Pointers and Indicators that Shed Clarity
on the Attributes and Merits of the Rooster by Ahmad ibn Ahmad
al-Fayyumi al-Gharqawi

Dar al-Kutub al-Misriyya MS 21620 ب, fol. 4r

...that al-Lahabi said: "Muhammad ibn al-Mukandar related that according to Jabir ibn 'Abd Allah, the Prophet (God's blessings and peace be upon him) ordered his followers to keep a white rooster." But al-Bayhaqi says this chain of transmission is to be rejected, being related by al-Lahabi only, and that a similar tradition with a discontinuous chain of transmission is also related. Al-Bayhaqi goes on to report that Abu Ahmad 'Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn [al-]Hasan al-Mahrajani related on the authority of Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Isma'il that on the authority of Yahya ibn Yahya, Ibrahim ibn 'Ali al-Dhuhli said: "Ibn Isma'il ibn 'Ayyash related that on the authority of 'Abd Allah, son of 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (may God Exalted be pleased with him), 'Amr ibn Muhammad ibn Zayd reported that the Prophet (God's blessings and peace be upon him) said: 'Roosters sound the call to prayer, and whoever keeps a white one enjoys threefold protection from the harm of every devil, sorcerer and soothsayer.' "

In his Middle Compilation, al-Tabarani says that Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Abar related on the authority of Mu'al[lal that] Muhammad b. Mihsan heard from Ibrahim ibn Abi 'Abla that Anas ibn Malik said: "The Prophet, God's blessings and peace be upon him, said: 'Take for yourselves a white rooster, for no devil nor any sorcerer will approach a house with a rooster in it, nor the houses surrounding it.' " And in the collection entitled al-Firdaws, al-Daylami says: "We are informed by Abu Talib al-Husayn that Mansur [ibn Wamish] heard Yusuf ibn ['Umar] ibn Masrur say: 'Muhammad ibn Makhlad said' 'Under the tutelage of Muhammad ibn Makhlad I recited a report by Sa'id ibn 'Abd Allah ibn 'Ajib that Wahb ibn Hafs related on the authority of 'Uthman ibn 'Abd al-Rahman that 'Anbasa heard from Muhammad ibn Zadan that Umm Muhammad bint Zayd ibn Thabit said: "The Prophet, God’s blessings and peace be upon him, said: 'There are three voices that God loves: the voice of a rooster, the voice of someone reciting the Qur'an, and the voice of those who pray for forgiveness in the hour before daybreak.' " ' "

Al-Bukhari and Muslim narrate on Masruq's authority that he asked 'A'isha: "At what times did the Prophet pray, God’s blessings and peace be upon him?" She said: "Whenever he heard al-sārikh, he would stand up and pray.” Al-Nawawi said: "The consensus of the learned is that al-sārikh here means the rooster, so called by the frequency of its crowing at night." And Ibn 'Adiyy relates on the authority of Ibn 'Umar that the Prophet (God’s blessings and peace be upon him) forbade castration of the rooster, along with the goat and the horse.

Abu 'l-Shaykh said: "Ahmad ibn Ruh reported on the authority of Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah ibn Yazid that al-Fadl ibn Dawud al-Wasiti said: 'I heard 'Abd Allah ibn Salih al-'Ijli enumerate ten [sic] characteristics of the rooster: "Of all birds, it is the most beloved by God, be He exalted and Magnified. Its voice carries the furthest, it is the most jealous, the fiercest in battle, and the most magnanimous. It is best-informed about the times of prayer, and keeps watch over its neighborhood. Of all the birds, it is the best, and mates more frequently than any other." ' And Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn al-Salt said: 'Wahb ibn Baqiya related on the authority of Khalid that Humayd reported that a man of Muzayna said: "I heard a rooster praising God."'

"Ja'far ibn Ahmad related on the authority of 'Ali ibn Bishr that 'Abd al-Rahim reported that Hammād ibn ['Amr] quoted 'Abd al-Hamīd ibn Yusuf as saying: 'A rooster crowed in the presence of Solomon son of David, blessings and peace be upon them both. He asked: "Do you know what it is saying?" "No," his companions said. "It says: 'Remember God, O heedless ones!" ' And on the authority of Ahmad al-Dawraqi, Ahmad ibn al-Hasan [al-Hadda'] related that Ibrahim ibn 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Mahdi heard from Mujalid ibn 'Ubayd Allah that al-Hasan ibn Dhakwan heard the story from Farqad al-Sabkhi: 'Solomon the son of David (blessings and peace be upon them both) passed by a nightingale that had alighted in a tree, wagging its head and dipping its tail. He said to his companions: "Do you know what this one is saying?" They said: "God and His prophet know best." He said: "It is saying: 'I have eaten half a piece of fruit, so let the world go to its ruin!' " Then he passed by a rooster that was crowing, and said: "Do you know..." ' "

From In Praise of the Rooster by Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti

Names of the Sun

Among the names of the sun are al-Ilāha and al-Alāha ("The Goddess"). Ibn ‘Abbās recited [Sūrat al-A‘rāf 7:127 with the words] wa-ilāhataka ["your goddess," in place of the dominant reading wa-ālihataka "your gods" in the question to Pharaoh: "Will you allow Moses and his people to spread corruption in the land, and leave you and your gods behind?"]. And a poet said (meter: kāmil):

    We spent the afternoon fanning ourselves at al-La‘bā’,
        speeding along al-Ilāha in her setting.

The "orbit" around the heavens' axis is called al-falak. God, be He exalted and magified, says [in Sūrat al-Anbiyā’ 21:33]: "All are in a falak swimming."
        The phenomenon called "devil's snot" [mukhāṭ al-shayṭān], which occurs when dust and cobwebs come together [and float in the air], is also called "sun snot" [mukhāṭ al-shams].
        The ‘ab or ‘abb of the sun is its illumination and its beauty. ‘Abba Shams, however, is a metathesis of the name ‘Abd Shams ("Servant of the Sun"). As a group name [for the Banū ‘Abd Shams, a clan of Quraysh], it is shortened to ‘Aba Shams, and is altogether undeclined, as in the verse:

    When ‘Aba Shams saw the sun in its brisk rise
        over their people, with al-Julhimī at their head...

Al-Dihh ("The Glare") is the sun. Dhu 'l-Rumma said:

    You see its hills blaze in the glare of al-Dihh,
        abetted by winds hot like sparks on dry tinder.

Al-ayā is the illumination and beauty of the sun, and is also applied to the beauty of plants in bloom. Al-iyā’ is heard with the same meaning, as in the verse:

    Two colors - red and dusty black - are in competition
        in the iyā’ of the sun whose going down you see.

Also said for the sun's brilliance is al-iyāh, as in the verse by Ṭarafa:

    [So bright were her teeth, it was as if] she had sipped the sun's iyāh,
                except for her gums
        which were painted with kohl she took pains not to smudge
                with the work of her teeth.

[...] After the sun has set, it is called Barāḥi ("The Departer"). Birāḥi too is heard. A poet said (meter: rajaz):

    Here stood the two feet of Rabāḥ
    who journeyed until the setting of Barāḥi."

"O you," they say when the sun has ceased shining, "Barāḥi has gone down."

From The Book of Seasons and Invocation in the Time before Islam

    by Abū ‘Alī Muḥammad al-Mustanīr, known as Quṭrub

Agriculture in Ancient Egypt

Oleiferous plants. The Egyptians took much care in pressing oils from different plants, as required by their cuisine, the blending of their ointments, perfumes and drugs, and their need for artifical light. In Arabic, the word for "oil" (zayt) is primarily applied to the oil of the olive (zaytūn), whose Coptic name is dʒi:t. Oils were also pressed from seeds of flax and safflower, juniper berries, and the nuts of the thorn tree, cedar, castor plant and Egyptian willow.

Medicinal plants. The advancement of ancient Egyptian botanical learning is best appreciated in their use of plants for fighting disease, most importantly: anise (Arabic yansūn, Egyptian ytkwn), cumin, dill, thistle, peppermint, boxthorn, poppy, juniper, henbane, pomegranate, fig, onion, garlic, coriander, the milk of the sycamore, and various oils. Space does not permit the mention of all the medical uses listed in the various papyri.

Fibrous plants. Flax was known in Egypt since the earliest times, and fragments of linen cloth have been discovered in the [Neolithic-era] graves of Merimde and Maadi. The stages in the production of linen are represented on the walls of the Beni Hasan tombs, from maceration, pounding and combing to its spinning, weaving and dyeing. The flax seeds preserved in the Fouad I Agricultural Museum and the Egyptian Museum of Berlin attest to the nobility of the ancient species.
        The special importance of papyrus was not limited to writing surfaces, as it was also used to line the bottoms of boats.

Garlands and bouquets. Flowers were of the highest importance in Egypt for their use in religious and funerary ceremonies. The flowers of the papyrus, lotus, acacia, and willow were bundled into garlands and bouquets, along with shoots of sycamore, celery and artemisia and sprays of camomile and saffron.

Timber. The most widespread of the big trees in Egypt were the sycamore, which was held sacred, and the acacia. The wood of the acacia was used in boat-building, its fruit (known in Arabic as qarad) was used in medicine and tanning hides, and its flower (called fotna) was woven into garlands for the dead. Most agricultural tools were made from acacia wood and from the tamarisk (known in Arabic as athl, which is its Egyptian name). The leaves of the weeping willow were used in funeral garlands, and knife handles made from its wood have been found to pre-date the Dynastic period. And pieces made from henna wood were among the finds of Schweinfurth.
        When the timber reserves of Egypt were no longer sufficient, trade with Lebanon was established in order to import lumber in pieces large enough for building their sarcophagi, ships and funerary and domestic furniture. Egypt's ebony came from Sudan, and myrrh was imported from the Somali land of Punt.

Peasant Life in Ancient Egypt. We end our account with a tale out of old Egypt. It comes from a story about the life of two brothers named Anubis and Bata, who were tillers of the earth. According to this story... [Here begins an abridged passage from The Literature of Ancient Egypt (Cairo, 1945), ed. & tr. by Selim Hassan:]
        Bata was a skilled farmer who made clothes for his brother and pastured his brother's herds. He broke the soil for his brother and harvested his brother's crops, and was filled to overflowing with God's breath, which increased his stature. Every day he went out with the herds to pasture, and every evening he returned to his brother's house with a load of milk and greens and dry kindling, and rendered them unto his older brother, bringing him pleasure as he sat with his wife. After eating and drinking his rations, Bata made his bed in the corral to watch over the cattle. At night's end, the new day's dawn found him preparing his older brother's meal. Then he would set it before him, and set off for pasture with his own, driving the cattle to lead him to the fertile fields. And the cattle grew fat, and their offspring were stout and numerous.
        When the time for plowing had come, the older brother said to Bata: "Yoke a pair of oxen to the plow, for the earth is no longer saturated, but ready for the plow. Prepare also the grain for sowing, and we will break ground in early morning." And the younger brother was delighted at all he commanded. At the new day's dawn, they went into the field, and took their place behind the bulls with firm resolve, and gladness filled their hearts, for they had begun the task of the new year. But their seed ran out before all the ground was sown, and the older brother sent the younger to the farm for another load.
        The young man entered the house "at a time of distraction of its folk", and found his brother's wife combing her hair. When he came out of the granary bearing his load, "she in whose house he was sought to seduce him," saying: " 'Come here, you,' " and promising him finer clothes and a better station. When he scorned her, she contrived to accuse him to his brother, and played the liar after the fashion of the well-known story of our master Joseph, peace be upon him.

Mahmud Darwish (Supervisor of General Education for Egypt's Ministry of Information), "al-Zira‘a al-Misriyya al-qadima," al-Filāha: Majalla Zira‘iyya Iqtisadiyya (a publication of the Association of Agricultural College Graduates / The Agricultural Club), 28:1 (Jan-Feb 1948). 28-30.
(See also: Veterinary Medicine in Ancient Egypt)

Veterinary Medicine in Ancient Egypt

Enclosed within the temple complexes of ancient Egypt (among them the temple of Memphis which predates 3000 BCE) were structures called "Houses of Life," where teachers and students were trained in the life sciences. Dissection and anatomy, chemistry, diagnosis of diseases and their remedies, the principles of mummification—the Houses of Life were the ideal place for study in all these fields, due to the embalming process which required the cutting open of human cadavers and animal carcasses, and the removal of their innards in preparation for mummification. This was the job of the medical diviners, who also tended to sacred animals and to the animals fattened for slaughter, whether as offerings to their gods or for human consumption.

Animal care flourished in ancient Egypt, and wealth in livestock increased among peasants and the landowners who kept large herds of cattle, sheep, goats and other ungulates. For horses and asses great care was also taken. They set up canopies in the fields, so that the animals might find rest and tranquility in their shade. Meanwhile, the herdsmen sat in the shade of trees, from where they would watch over them and apportion their feed—a scene that appears in the [tomb paintings representing the] fields of Ti, ca. 2550 BCE. In these settings, herdsmen gained experience in care and husbandry, tending to pregnant animals and supervising their delivery, seeing to their milking and the nursing of their calves, and isolation of the sick and their cure.

Mastaba of Ti, Saqqara. Detail from a photo by Richard T. Mortel

As the care of sick animals was left up to shepherds with experience and knowledge of cures, it was from their ranks that the veterinary doctor emerged, as affirmed by the English scholar Wilkinson in his book of 1878.

The life of the traveler Khuf Har is dated to the Sixth Dynasty, so it was 2350 years before Christ that he made his famous journey to the upper regions of Nubia in search of incense and ivory. For transport and communication outside the country he used 300 asses, and that same season he brought them all back, loaded with impressive treasures. This reflects the level of the ancient Egyptians' ability and their skill in tending animals.

In 1889, the English archaeologist Flinders Petrie discovered a Twelfth-Dynasty papyrus on veterinary medicine, whose date goes back to 2000 BCE, in the Ilahun subdistrict of the province of Fayyum. This text indicates remedies for bulls suffering from tear duct infections, as well as depression and sadness, and for dogs afflicted with internal parasites.

From Veterinary Medicine Between Past, Present and Future,
a 1990 publication of the Egyptian Veterinary Syndicate.
(See also: Agriculture in Ancient Egypt)